Social Stratification (General Concepts)

Social Stratification

Social stratification is a fundamental concept in sociology that refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. This system of structured inequality is not about individual differences in talent or ability, but is a characteristic of society itself. It is a way of organising people into different layers or 'strata' based on their access to valued resources such as wealth, power, and prestige.

All socially stratified systems share four key principles:

1. It is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences. Society itself structures opportunities and rewards, giving some people more advantages than others.
2. It persists over generations. Parents pass their social position on to their children, meaning that one's life chances are heavily influenced by the family one is born into.
3. It is universal but variable. While some form of stratification exists in all societies, what is considered valuable and how unequal the system is varies from one society to another.
4. It involves not just inequality but also beliefs and ideologies. Every system of inequality is supported by an ideology that explains and justifies the arrangement as fair, natural, or inevitable.

While various systems of stratification like slavery and the estate system have existed historically, the two most significant forms, particularly in the modern world and in the Indian context, are caste and class.

Caste

The caste system is a rigid form of social stratification where a person's social position is determined by the group they are born into. It is a classic example of an ascribed status, as an individual's caste is fixed at birth and cannot be changed through individual achievement. The Indian caste system, traditionally associated with Hinduism, is the most well-known and complex example of this form of stratification.

Characteristics of the Caste System

The sociologist G.S. Ghurye identified the main features of the caste system in India as follows:

• Segmental Division: Society is divided into a number of closed segments (castes or jatis), with membership being determined by birth.
• Hierarchy: The different castes are arranged in a strict hierarchy of rank and status. This hierarchy is based on the ideological principle of purity and pollution, with the Brahmins at the top (most pure) and the Dalits (formerly 'untouchables') outside the four-fold Varna system at the bottom (most polluted).
• Restrictions on Social Interaction: There are strict rules governing social interactions, especially the sharing of food and water, between castes.
• Differential Rights and Disabilities: The system grants privileges to the higher castes and imposes disabilities on the lower castes, historically denying them access to public spaces, education, and temples.
• Hereditary Occupations: Each caste was traditionally associated with a specific occupation, which was passed down from one generation to the next.
• Endogamy: The system enforces strict rules of marriage, requiring individuals to marry within their own caste or sub-caste. This is the key mechanism for maintaining the rigid boundaries between castes.

Caste in Contemporary India

While the caste system has undergone significant changes due to urbanisation, education, and legal reforms (like the abolition of untouchability and the implementation of reservation policies), it continues to be a powerful force in Indian society. Its influence is visible in politics (caste-based voting blocs), marriage (the prevalence of caste-based matrimonial advertisements), and patterns of economic inequality. There is a strong and persistent correlation between caste and class, with lower-caste groups being disproportionately represented among the poor and marginalized.

Class

A class is a large-scale grouping of people who share a common economic position in society. Unlike caste, class is an achieved status, at least in theory. A class system is more open, and it allows for social mobility—the movement of individuals up or down the class hierarchy based on their achievements, education, and efforts. Class is the primary form of stratification in modern industrial and capitalist societies.

The Marxist and Weberian Perspectives

The two most influential sociological theories of class come from Karl Marx and Max Weber.

• Karl Marx's View: For Marx, class is defined by a person's relationship to the means of production. In capitalist society, there are two main classes: the bourgeoisie (who own the factories and capital) and the proletariat (who own only their labour power). He saw the relationship between these classes as one of conflict and exploitation, which would ultimately lead to revolution.
• Max Weber's View: Weber offered a more multidimensional view. He agreed that economic factors (class) were important, but he argued that social stratification is also based on two other factors:
  • Status: The social honour or prestige accorded to a group by society. A person's lifestyle, education, and family background contribute to their status. Weber argued that caste groups in India are a prime example of 'status groups'.
  • Party: A group's political power and influence, its ability to achieve its goals even against the opposition of others.
  For Weber, a person's position in society is a complex combination of their class, status, and party.

Caste and Class: A Comparison

The Interplay of Caste and Class in India

In contemporary India, the relationship between caste and class is complex and dynamic. While they are analytically distinct, they are empirically intertwined.